States are the basic units of the international system and unitary actors in the world’s political and security landscape. Ever since the medieval ages the global States system has undergone significant transformations, adapting to the evolving trends in international structure and fulfilling the fundamental needs and aspirations of its citizens.
The Peace Treaty of Westphalia, concluded in 1648, is one of the most pivotal moments in world political history that laid the foundation for the modern State. Besides marking the end of the Thirty Years’ War in Europe, the Westphalian Peace established the fundamental principles of State’s territorial integrity, sovereignty, and exclusive authority to formulate laws, administer justice, and conduct foreign policy.
These principles have since been serving as norms of the international structure. However, with the rise of globalization, the increasing importance of non-state actors, and the growing challenges to national sovereignty, some scholars and policymakers have begun to wonder: is the world reverting to a pre-Westphalian order?
In order to reach some logical conclusion, it is imperative to make a comparison of the prevailing strategic security environment with that existing before the Westphalian Peace.
The pre-Westphalian political structure was characterized by a complex web of overlapping jurisdictions and authorities. Followings were the major political orders in Europe: (1) The Holy Roman Empire– a loose confederation of German states and cities with the Holy Roman Emperor as its head; (2) Habsburg Dynasty– comprising vast territory including Spain, Austria and Hungary; (3) the Catholic Church- with a central role in European life influencing education, politics, and culture; (4) various monarchs, feudal lords and vassals– all exercising power and influence over different territories and populations. In Muslim world, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand into Eastern Europe, posing a threat to European powers.
The system was often chaotic and violent, with frequent conflicts and power struggles among various actors. The following two major wars impended the peace and stability of the European theatre: (1) the Eighty-Years War (1568-1648) for Dutch independence from Spain; and, (2) the devastating Thirty-Years War (1618-1648) involving many European powers. Furthermore, the Catholic-Protestant divide had also created a deep split between Catholic and Protestant States. The concept of sovereignty as we understand today did not exist, and States were not recognized as having supreme authority within their territories.
In many ways, the world security situation today bears some striking similarities to those of the pre-Westphalian era. A few key parallels include the followings:
All the political analysts widely accept anarchy as the basic element of the world order which demands individual states to ruthlessly be self-seeking as regards to ensuring their security and survival. Anarchy prevailed both in pre-Westphalian and present eras, with a difference in “intensity”, and not in “nature”. The pre-Westphalian anarchy was characterized by overlapping jurisdictions and authorities, challenging the concept of national sovereignty.
Today, globalization, international institutions, and non-state actors (NSAs) are all challenging the traditional notion of national sovereignty. Furthermore, the possession of deadliest weapons, especially the nuclear arsenals, the unending arms race amongst states, disrespect of international laws especially the humanitarian laws and prevailing turbulence in States’ external and domestic dynamics, are a few indicators of the anarchic world order.
What is emerging is a hybrid order: a mix of medieval-like pluralism, transnational loyalties, and modern state structures, shaped by globalization, conflict, and ideology. Whether this trend represents a temporary aberration or a new long-term paradigm remains to be seen.
Although there are no more traditional empires and monarchs ruling vast territories and playing central roles in states domestic and international affairs, this role has been assumed by the great powers. States’ myth of independence has become neo-colonial reality today, hence seriously compromising their sovereignty. States– especially weak powers– are bound to respond to the dictates of the international system, great power politics and stringent conditions imposed by global financial institutions.
In the pre-Westphalian era, NSAs such as the Catholic Church and feudal lords played important roles in international relations. Today, NSAs such as terrorist organizations, multinational corporations, and NGOs are increasingly influential in global affairs. It was a small group of NSAs which conducted 9/1 – severely altering the security dynamics of every State on Earth. Similarly, NSAs with military capabilities have compromised the predominance of the States’ conceptual and practical authority in conducting foreign policy. The signs of such collapses of States’ structures are quite pronounced in the Middle East in the post-Arab Spring scenario and other states like Afghanistan in recent decades.
The pre-Westphalian era was marked by complex webs of alliances, rivalries, and power struggles. Today, the world is more interconnected than ever before, with complex global supply chains, international institutions, and social media networks.
There are, however, some significant differences between the two eras. The modern international system is characterized by a robust framework of international law, institutions, and norms, which did not exist in the pre-Westphalian era. Additionally, the world today is more interconnected and interdependent than ever before, which creates both opportunities and challenges.
A critical analysis of both eras reveals that during the pre-Westphalian period, the whole of Europe was in turmoil whereas the Islamic world was relatively stable. Today, the case is rather opposite where Europe and the Western states are fairly balanced and the Islamic world is witnessing a reversion to this older model, amid rising sectarianism, transnational ideologies, and weakened sate structures. Most modern Muslim-majority states possess colonial legacies and have failed to reflect cohesive ethnic, tribal, or religious identities in the post-colonial nation-building processes. This dissonance has produced chronic instability, authoritarianism, and, in some cases, state failure.
Some of the key trends of the Islamic World which emerged during the past few decades include the following:
Firstly, the onset of the 2011 Uprisings– the Arab Spring– led to the extraordinary proliferation of armed NSAs in Iraq, Syria, Yemen, and Libya. Same is the case in Afghanistan which has become the hub of scores of armed factions since: firstly, Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979; and, secondly, the US adventure and withdrawal in 2001 and 2021, respectively. Later, these scattered groups evolved themselves into established identities with an extensive regional network, such as Syrian Kurds, al-Qaeda in Afghanistan, the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), Jaysh al-Islam in Syria, and Houthis in Yemen. In addition, hundreds of small militant groups emerged in Libya and Syria either operating independently or in the shadow of larger identities. As a result, states like Syria, Libya, Yemen, and Iraq have experienced severe fragmentation where multiple NSAs are in control of swathes of territory. Furthermore, foreign powers interventions with impunity, has eroded and undermined the traditional notions of sovereignty.
Secondly, movements like al-Qaeda, ISIS, and various Islamist revivalist groups, reject the legitimacy of modern nation-states, promoting a Pan-Islamic identity reminiscent of the Islamic Ummah. Their appeal crosses national boundaries and targets Muslims globally.
Thirdly, sectarianism as political identity has re-emerged as a dominant force and backing sectarian proxies is the new normal across the region. This mirrors medieval patterns where religious affiliation often superseded national loyalty.
Fourthly, there exist parallel authorities which operate independently in several countries, hence compromising the monopoly of the central state on its functioning. Many such organisations operate semi-independently in various countries, recalling the fragmented political landscape of pre-modern Islamic polities.
While these trends are significant, yet they are not universal. The international system still largely operates under Westphalian norms, including the UN, diplomatic recognition, and international law. Similarly, the Islamic world is not entirely reverting to a pre-Westphalian era, as many Muslim-majority states— like Indonesia, Iran, Turkey, Pakistan and Morocco— maintain strong national identities and functioning on a pattern of the Westphalian state systems. However, in several critical regions, the principles underpinning the Westphalian order— sovereignty, territoriality, and centralized authority— are under severe strain.
What is emerging is a hybrid order: a mix of medieval-like pluralism, transnational loyalties, and modern state structures, shaped by globalization, conflict, and ideology. Whether this trend represents a temporary aberration or a new long-term paradigm remains to be seen.
